Ethics. On God, Man and His Happiness

The Dutch philosopher-rationalist, one of the main representatives of the philosophy of the Enlightenment, Benedict Spinoza (Baruch Spinoza) was born in Amsterdam in 1632 into a wealthy family of Spanish Jews who fled here from the persecution of the Inquisition. Using the so-called geometric method, the philosopher viewed the universe as a coherent mathematical system and in his reflections managed to reconcile and bring closer the medieval theocratic world of unshakeable truths and the science of the Enlightenment, which posited that only through the tireless work of reason can one approach the understanding of truth. For his "heretical" ideas, Spinoza was eventually excommunicated from the Jewish community where he was educated, and subsequently, although his works gained respect among the most enlightened people of his time, the philosopher had no inclination to enjoy the benefits of generous patronage. The only work published during Spinoza's lifetime bearing his name was "The Principles of Descartes' Philosophy, Demonstrated in a Geometric Manner" with an "Appendix Containing Metaphysical Thoughts." The main masterpiece, summarizing the labor of Spinoza's entire life, — "Ethics," which he worked on from approximately 1661 and where the system of his arguments appears in all its magnificent coherence, — was published only in 1677, after the author's death.